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the worst builder i've ever seen and also... "The Second World War" and "WWII" redirect here. For other uses, see The Second World War (disambiguation) and WWII (disambiguation). |- ! colspan="2" |Participants |- |'Allies' |'Axis' |- ! colspan="2" |Commanders and leaders |- |'Main Allied leaders' Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek |'Main Axis leaders' Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini |- ! colspan="2" |Casualties and losses |- |'Military dead:' Over 16,000,000 Civilian dead: Over 45,000,000 Total dead: Over 61,000,000 (1937–45) ...further details |'Military dead:' Over 8,000,000 Civilian dead: Over 4,000,000 Total dead: Over 12,000,000 (1937–45) ...further details |} |- | |} |} World War II (WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War (after the recent Great War), was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, though related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Alliesand the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. In a state of "total war", the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust (during which approximately 11 million people were killed)12 and the strategic bombing of industrial and population centres (during which approximately one million people were killed, including the use of two nuclear weapons in combat),3 it resulted in an estimated 50 million to 85 million fatalities. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history.4 The Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of Chinain 1937,5 but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 19396 with the invasion of Polandby Germany and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. For a year starting in late June of 1940, the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealthwere the only Allied forces continuing the fight against the European Axis powers, with campaigns in North Africaand the Horn of Africa as well as the long-running Battle of the Atlantic. In June 1941, the European Axis powers launched an invasion of the Soviet Union, opening the largest land theatre of war in history, which trapped the major part of the Axis' military forces into a war of attrition. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United Statesand European territories in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, and Germany was defeated in North Africa and then, decisively, at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. In 1943, with a series of German defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasion of Italy which brought about Italian surrender, and Allied victories in the Pacific, the Axis lost the initiative and undertook strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Alliesinvaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in SouthCentral China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and captured key Western Pacific islands. The war in Europe ended with an invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union culminating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet and Polish troops and the subsequent German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945. Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender under its terms, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 August and 9 August respectively. With an invasion of the Japanese archipelago imminent, the possibility of additional atomic bombings, and the Soviet Union's declaration of war on Japan and invasion of Manchuria,Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945. Thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world. The United Nations (UN) was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and France—became the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.7 The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia and Africa began. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities and to create a common identity.8 Contents * 1 Chronology * 2 Background * 3 Pre-war events ** 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) ** 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–39) ** 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) ** 3.4 Soviet-Japanese border conflicts ** 3.5 European occupations and agreements * 4 Course of the war ** 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–40) ** 4.2 Western Europe (1940–41) ** 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–41) ** 4.4 Axis attack on the USSR (1941) ** 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) ** 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–43) ** 4.7 Allies gain momentum (1943–44) ** 4.8 Allies close in (1944) ** 4.9 Axis collapse, Allied victory (1944–45) * 5 Aftermath * 6 Impact ** 6.1 Casualties and war crimes ** 6.2 Concentration camps, slave labour, and genocide ** 6.3 Occupation ** 6.4 Home fronts and production ** 6.5 Advances in technology and warfare * 7 See also * 8 Notes * 9 Citations * 10 References * 11 External links Chronology See also: Timeline of World War II The start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939,910 beginning with the German invasion of Poland; Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937,11 or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931.1213 Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and the two wars merged in 1941. This article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935.14 The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of the Second World War as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces ofMongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939.15 The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945 (V-J Day), rather than the formal surrender of Japan (2 September 1945); it is even claimed in some European histories that it ended on V-E Day (8 May 1945).[citation needed] A peace treaty with Japan was signed in 1951 to formally tie up any loose ends such as compensation to be paid to Allied prisoners of war who had been victims of atrocities.16 A treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place in 1990 and resolved other post-World War II issues.17 Background Main article: Causes of World War II World War I had radically altered the political European map, with the defeat of the Central Powers—including Austria-Hungary, Germany and the Ottoman Empire—and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia. Meanwhile, existing victorious Allies such as France, Belgium, Italy, Greece and Romania gained territories, and new Nation states were created out of the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman and Russian Empires. To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was created during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military and naval disarmament, and settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I,18 its aftermath still caused irredentist and revanchist nationalism in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses incurred by the Treaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all of its overseas colonies, while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces.19 The German Empire was dissolved in the German Revolution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by Britain and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled with the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian, and class collaborationistagenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at forging Italy as a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire".20 The League of Nations assembly, held in Geneva, Switzerland, 1930 The Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese communist allies.21 In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Japanese Empire, which had long sought influence in China22 as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia, used the Mukden Incident as a pretext to launch an invasion of Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo.23 Too weak to resist Japan, China appealed to the League of Nations for help. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai, Rehe and Hebei, until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan.24 Adolf Hitler at a German National Socialist political rally in Weimar, October 1930 Adolf Hitler, after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933. He abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massive rearmament campaign.25 It was at this time that multiple political scientists began to predict that a second Great War might take place.26 Meanwhile, France, to secure its alliance, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when theTerritory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme and introduced conscription.27 Hoping to contain Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front; however, in June 1935, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned byGermany's goals of capturing vast areas of eastern Europe, drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless.28 The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year.29 Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936. He encountered little opposition from other European powers.30 In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy would join in the following year. In China, after the Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan.31 Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) Main article: Second Italo-Abyssinian War Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the Second Italo-Abyssinian War The Second Italo–Abyssinian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy (Regno d'Italia), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea.32 The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition, it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did nothing when the former clearly violated the League's own Article X.33 Germany was the only major European nation to support the invasion. Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria.34 Spanish Civil War (1936–39) Main article: Spanish Civil War The bombing of Guernica in 1937, sparked Europe-wide fears that the next war would be based on bombing of cities with very high civilian casualties When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels, led by General Francisco Franco. The Soviet Union supported the existing government, the Spanish Republic. Over 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the USSR used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The bombing of Guernica by the German Condor Legion in April 1937 heightened widespread concerns that the next major war would include extensive terror bombing attacks on civilians.3536 The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, bargained with both sides during the Second World War, but never concluded any major agreements. He did send volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front under German command but Spain remained neutral and did not allow either side to use its territory.37 Japanese invasion of China (1937) Main article: Second Sino-Japanese War See also: Nanshin-ron Japanese Imperial Army soldiers during the Battle of Shanghai, 1937 In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Beijing after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China.38 The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior co-operation with Germany. Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai, but, after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens of thousands if not hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants weremurdered by the Japanese.3940 In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May.41 In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan, but the city was taken by October.42 Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war.4344 Red Army soldiers on the attack at the Battle of Lake Khasan Soviet-Japanese border conflicts Main article: Soviet–Japanese border conflicts Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia, culminating in the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939. After this, Japan and the Soviet Union signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan turned its focus further south which would eventually lead to its war with the United States and the Western Allies.4546 European occupations and agreements Further information: Anschluss, Appeasement, Munich Agreement, German occupation of Czechoslovakia and Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler,Mussolini, and Ciano pictured just before signing the Munich Agreement, 29 September 1938 In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria, again provokinglittle response from other European powers.47 Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland, an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population; and soon Britain and France followed the counsel of prime minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands.48 Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary and Poland.49 Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state, the Slovak Republic.50 Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region. German Foreign MinisterRibbentrop signing the Nazi–Soviet non-aggression pact. Standing behind him are Molotov and the Soviet leaderJoseph Stalin, 1939 Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig, Britain and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to Romania and Greece.51 Shortly after the Franco-British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel.52 Hitler accused Britain and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact. In August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact,53 a non-aggression treaty with a secret protocol. The parties gave each other rights to "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Bessarabia for the USSR). It also raised the question of continuing Polish independence.54 The agreement was crucial to Hitler because it assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I, after it defeated Poland. The situation reached a general crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. In a private meeting with the Italian foreign minister, Count Ciano, Hitler asserted that Poland was a "doubtful neutral" that needed to either yield to his demands or be "liquidated" to prevent it from drawing off German troops in the future "unavoidable" war with the Western democracies. He did not believe Britain or France would intervene in the conflict.55 On 23 August Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that Britain had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it.56 In response to British demands for direct negotiations, Germany demanded on 29 August that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover ofDanzig and the Polish Corridor to Germany as well as to agree to safeguard the German minority in Poland. The Poles refused to comply with this request and on the night of 30–31 August in a violent interview with Neville Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its proposals rejected.57 Course of the war Further information: Diplomatic history of World War II War breaks out in Europe (1939–40) Main articles: Invasion of Poland, Occupation of Poland (1939–45), Nazi crimes against the Polish nation, Soviet invasion of Poland and Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–46) Soldiers of the German Wehrmachttearing down the border crossing between Poland and the Free City of Danzig, 1 September 1939 On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland under the false pretext that the Poles had carried out a series of sabotage operations against German targets.58 Two days later, on 3 September, after a British ultimatum to Germany to cease military operations was ignored, France and the United Kingdom, followed by the fully independent Dominions59 of the British Commonwealth60—Australia (3 September), Canada (10 September), New Zealand (3 September), and South Africa (6 September)—declared war on Germany. However, initially the alliance provided limited direct military support to Poland, consisting of a cautious, half-hearted French probe into the Saarland.61 The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort.62 Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfareagainst Allied merchant and warships, which was to later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic. German Panzer I tanks near the city of Bydgoszcz, during the Invasion of Poland, September 1939 On 17 September 1939, after signing a cease-fire with Japan, the Soviets invaded Poland from the east.63 The Polish army was defeated and Warsaw surrendered to the Germans on 27 September, with final pockets of resistance surrendering on 6 October. Poland's territory was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union, withLithuania and Slovakia also receiving small shares. After the surrender of Poland's armed forces, the Polish resistance established an Underground State and a partisan Home Army.64 About 100,000 Polish military personnel were evacuated to Romania and the Baltic countries; many of these soldiers later fought against the Germans in other theatres of the war.65Poland's Enigma codebreakers were also evacuated to France.66 On 6 October Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France, but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. Chamberlain rejected this on 12 October, saying "Past experience has shown that no reliance can be placed upon the promises of the present German Government."57 After this rejection Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France,67 but bad weather forced repeated postponements until the spring of 1940.686970 German and Soviet army officers pictured shaking hands—after Nazi Germany and Soviet Union annexed new territories in Eastern Europe, 1939 After signing the German–Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Demarcation, the Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries—Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania—to allow it to station Soviet troops in their countries under pacts of "mutual assistance".717273 Finland rejected territorial demands, prompting a Soviet invasion in November 1939.74 The resultingWinter War ended in March 1940 with Finnish concessions.75 The United Kingdom and France treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tantamount to its entering the war on the side of the Germans, responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting the USSR's expulsion from the League of Nations.73 In June 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania,72 and the disputed Romanian regions ofBessarabia, Northern Bukovina and Hertza. Meanwhile, Nazi-Soviet political rapprochement and economic co-operation7677gradually stalled,7879 and both states began preparations for war.80 Western Europe (1940–41) Map of the French Maginot Line In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden, which the Allies were attempting to cut off by unilaterally mining neutral Norwegian waters.81 Denmark capitulated after a few hours, and despite Allied support, during which the important harbour of Narvik temporarily was recaptured from the Germans, Norway was conquered within two months.82 British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the replacement of the British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, with Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940.83 Germany launched an offensive against France and, adhering to the Manstein Plan also attacked the neutral nations of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg on 10 May 1940.84 That same day British forces landed in Iceland and the Faroes to preempt a possible German invasion of the islands.85 The U.S. in close co-operation with the Danish envoy to Washington D.C., agreed to protect Greenland, laying the political framework for the formal establishment of bases in April 1941. The Netherlands and Belgium were overrun using blitzkrieg tactics in a few days and weeks, respectively.86 The French-fortified Maginot Line and the main body the Allied forces which had moved into Belgium were circumvented by a flanking movement through the thickly wooded Ardennes region,87 mistakenly perceived by Allied planners as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles.8889 As a result, the bulk of the Allied armies found themselves trapped in an encirclement and were beaten. The majority were taken prisoner, whilst over 300,000, mostly British and French, were evacuated from the continent at Dunkirk by early June, although abandoning almost all of their equipment.90 On 10 June, Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom.91 Paris fell to the Germans on 14 June and eight days later France surrendered and was soon divided into German and Italian occupation zones,92 and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet but the British feared the Germans would seize it, so on 3 July, the British attacked it.93 View of London after the German''"Blitz", 29 December 1940 On 19 July, Hitler again publicly offered to end the war, saying he had no desire to destroy the British Empire. The United Kingdom rejected this, with Lord Halifax responding "there was in his speech no suggestion that peace must be based on justice, no word of recognition that the other nations of Europe had any right to self‑determination ..."94 Following this, Germany began an air superiority campaign over the United Kingdom (the Battle of Britain) to prepare for an invasion.95 The campaign failed, and the invasion plans were cancelled by September.95 Frustrated, and in part in response to repeated British air raids against Berlin, Germany began a strategic bombing offensive against British cities known as the Blitz.96 However, the air attacks largely failed to disrupt the British war effort. German Luftwaffe, Heinkel He 111bombers during the Battle of Britain Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy, using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic.97The British scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship ''Bismarck.98 Perhaps most importantly, during the Battle of Britain the Royal Air Force had successfully resisted the Luftwaffe's assault, and the German bombing campaign largely ended in May 1941.99 Throughout this period, the neutral United States took measures to assist China and the Western Allies. In November 1939, the American Neutrality Act was amended to allow "cash and carry" purchases by the Allies.100 In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased. In September, the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases.101 Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention into the conflict well into 1941.102 Although Roosevelt had promised to keep the United States out of the war, he nevertheless took concrete steps to prepare for war. In December 1940 he accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out negotiations as useless, calling for the US to become an "arsenal for democracy" and promoted the passage of Lend-Lease aid to support the British war effort.94 In January 1941 secret high level staff talks with the British began for the purposes of determining how to defeat Germany should the US enter the war. They decided on a number of offensive policies, including an air offensive, the "early elimination" of Italy, raids, support of resistance groups, and the capture of positions to launch an offensive against Germany.103 At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact united Japan, Italy and Germany to formalise the Axis Powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country, with the exception of the Soviet Union, not in the war which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.104 The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact.105 Romania would make a major contribution (as did Hungary) to the Axis war against the USSR, partially to recapture territory ceded to the USSR, partially to pursue its leader Ion Antonescu's desire to combat communism.106 Mediterranean (1940–41) Australian troops of the British Commonwealth Forces man a front-line trench during the Siege of Tobruk;North African Campaign, August 1941 Italy began operations in the Mediterranean, initiating a siege of Malta in June, conquering British Somaliland in August, andmaking an incursion into British-held Egypt in September 1940. In October 1940, Italy started the Greco-Italian War because of Mussolini's jealousy of Hitler's success but within days was repulsed and pushed back into Albania, where a stalemate soon occurred.107 The United Kingdom responded to Greek requests for assistance by sending troops to Crete and providing air support to Greece. Hitler decided that when the weather improved he would take action against Greece to assist the Italians and prevent the British from gaining a foothold in the Balkans, to strike against the British naval dominance of the Mediterranean, and to secure his hold on Romanian oil.108 In December 1940, British Commonwealth forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa.109 The offensive in North Africa was highly successful and by early February 1941 Italy had lost control of eastern Libya and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission by a carrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan.110 The Germans soon intervened to assist Italy. Hitler sent German forces to Libya in February, and by the end of March they hadlaunched an offensive which drove back the Commonwealth forces which had been weakened to support Greece.111 In under a month, Commonwealth forces were pushed back into Egypt with the exception of the besieged port of Tobruk.112 The Commonwealth attempted to dislodge Axis forces in May and again in June, but failed on both occasions.113 By late March 1941, following Bulgaria's signing of the Tripartite Pact, the Germans were in position to intervene in Greece. Plans were changed, however, because of developments in neighbouring Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav government had signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 March, only to be overthrown two days later by a British-encouraged coup. Hitler viewed the new regime as hostile and immediately decided to eliminate it. On 6 April Germany simultaneously invaded both Yugoslavia andGreece, making rapid progress and forcing both nations to surrender within the month. The British were driven from the Balkans after Germany conquered the Greek island of Crete by the end of May.114 Although the Axis victory was swift, bitter partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war. The Allies did have some successes during this time. In the Middle East, Commonwealth forces first quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria,115 then, with the assistance of the Free French, invaded Syria and Lebanon to prevent further such occurrences.116 Axis attack on the USSR (1941) Further information: Operation Barbarossa, Einsatzgruppen, World War II casualties of the Soviet Union and Nazi crimes against Soviet POWs Animation of the WWII European Theatre Soviet civilians in Leningrad leaving destroyed houses, after a German bombardment of the city; Battle of Leningrad, 10 December 1942 With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia, the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941.117 By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border.118 Hitler believed that Britain's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later.119 He therefore decided to try to strengthen Germany's relations with the Soviets, or failing that, to attack and eliminate them as a factor. In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the Tripartite Pact. The Soviets showed some interest, but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them. They were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary.120 The primary targets of this surprise offensive121 were the Baltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan line, from the Caspian to the White Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate Communism, generate Lebensraum ("living space")122 by dispossessing the native population123 and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals.124 Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war,125 Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt a strategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By the middle of August, however, the German Army High Commanddecided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre, and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad.126 The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made further advance into Crimea and industrially developed Eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov) possible.127 The diversion of three quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front128 prompted Britain to reconsider its grand strategy.129 In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany130 The British and Soviets invaded Iran to secure the Persian Corridor and Iran's oil fields.131 In August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter.132 By October Axis operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region were achieved, with only the sieges of Leningrad133 and Sevastopol continuing.134 A majoroffensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops135 were forced to suspend their offensive.136 Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended.137 By early December, freshly mobilised reserves138 allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops.139 This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army,140 allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west.141 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Mitsubishi A6M2 "Zero" fighters on the Imperial Japanese Navy aircraft carrier Shōkaku, just before the attack on Pearl Harbor In 1939 the United States had renounced its trade treaty with Japan and beginning with an aviation gasoline ban in July 1940 Japan had become subject to increasing economic pressure.94 During this time, Japan launched its first attack against Changsha, a strategically important Chinese city, but was repulsed by late September.142 Despite several offensives by both sides, the war between China and Japan was stalemated by 1940. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan had occupied northern Indochina.143 Afterwards, the United States embargoed iron, steel and mechanical parts against Japan.144 Other sanctions soon followed. In August of that year, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists.145 Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.146 In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during Battle of Shanggao.147 In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces.148 German successes in Europe encouraged Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan some oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941.149 In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, United Kingdom and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo.150151 Since early 1941 the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate.152 At the same time the US, Britain, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them.153 Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the US would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries".153 USS Arizona during the Japanese surprise air attack on the American pacific fleet, 7 December 1941 Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American-British-Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. On 20 November it presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange they promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw their forces from their threatening positions in southern Indochina.152 The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers.154 That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;155 the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war.156 Japan planned to rapidly seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific; the Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war.157 To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset.158 On 7 December (8 December in Asian time zones), 1941, Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific.159 These included an attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, landings in Thailand and Malaya159 and the battle of Hong Kong. These attacks led the United States, Britain, China, Australia and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.160 Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German submarines and merchant ships that had been ordered by Roosevelt.120 Axis advance stalls (1942–43) Seated at the Casablanca Conference; US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British PM Winston Churchill, January 1943 In January 1942, the United States, Britain, Soviet Union, China, and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations, thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter,161 and agreeing to not to sign separate peace with the Axis powers. During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets were also demanding a second front. The British, on the other hand, argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to throw a "ring" around Germany which would wear out German strength, lead to increasing demoralisation, and bolster resistance forces. Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour without using large-scale armies.162 Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa.163 At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration by the United Nations, and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes.164 Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland and to invade France in 1944.165 Pacific (1942–43) Map of Japanese military advances, until mid-1942 By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost fully conquered Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Singapore, and Rabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners.166 Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces, the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile.167 On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division.168 Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean,169 and bombed the Allied naval base atDarwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha.170 These easy victories over unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, as well as overextended.171 In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The Allies, however, prevented the invasion by intercepting and defeating the Japanese naval forces in the Battle of the Coral Sea.172 Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid, was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska.173 In early June, Japan put its operations into action but the Americans, having broken Japanese naval codes in late May, were fully aware of the plans and force dispositions and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy.174 US Marines during the Guadalcanal Campaign, in the Pacific theatre, 1942 With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan chose to focus on a belated attempt to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua.175 The Americans planned a counter-attack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily Guadalcanal, as a first step towards capturingRabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia.176 Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna-Gona.177 Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops.178 In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first, an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942, went disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May 1943.179 The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front-lines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results.180 Eastern Front (1942–43) Red Army soldiers on the counterattack, during the Battle of Stalingrad, February 1943 Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year.181 In May the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkiv,182 and then launched their mainsummer offensive against southern Russia in June 1942, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy Kubansteppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga.183 By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting when the Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad184 and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.185 By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been forced to surrender,186 and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkiv, creating a salient in their front line around the Russian city of Kursk.187 Western Europe/Atlantic & Mediterranean (1942–43) An American B-17 bombing raid, by the 8th Air Force, on the Focke Wulf factory in Germany, 9 October 1943 Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast.188 By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive, Operation Crusader, in North Africa, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made.189 In North Africa, the Germans launched an offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala Line by early February,190 followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.191 Concerns the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-heldMadagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942.192 An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein.193 On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the disastrous Dieppe Raid,194 demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security.195 In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein196 and, at a high cost, managed todeliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.197 A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.198 This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies.199 Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering theoccupation of Vichy France;199 although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces.200 The now pincered Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943.201 In early 1943 the British and Americans began the "Combined Bomber Offensive", a strategic bombing campaign against Germany. The goals were to disrupt the German war economy, reduce German morale, and "de-house" the German civilian population.202 Allies gain momentum (1943–44) US Navy Douglas SBD Dauntlessflies patrol over the USS Washington''and ''USS Lexington during the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign, 1943 Following the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Allied forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians,203 and soon after began major operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, and to breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.204By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives, and additionally neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands. In April, the Allies then launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea.205 In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 making preparations for large offensives in central Russia. On 4 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' deeply echeloned and well-constructed defences206 and, for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled the operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success.207 This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month.208 Also, in July 1943 the British firebombed Hamburg killing over 40,000 people. Red Army troops following T-34tanks, in a counter-offensive on German positions, at the Battle of Kursk, August 1943 On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives, thereby dispelling any hopes of the German Army for victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority,209 giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.210211 The Germans attempted to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther-Wotan line; however, the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and by the Lower Dnieper Offensives.212 On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland, following an Italian armistice with the Allies.213Germany responded by disarming Italian forces, seizing military control of Italian areas,214 and creating a series of defensive lines.215 German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic,216 causing an Italian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November.217 German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign.218 In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran.219 The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory,220 while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.221 Ruins of the Benedictinemonastery, during the Battle of Monte Cassino; Italian Campaign, May 1944 From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde, the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition, while awaiting Allied relief.222223224 In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and attempted to outflank it with landings at Anzio.225 By the end of January, a major Soviet offensive expelled German forces from the Leningrad region,226 ending the longest and most lethal siege in history. The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided byEstonians hoping to re-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Searegion.227 By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and madeincursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops.228 The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, on 4 June, Rome was captured.229 The Allies experienced mixed fortunes in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against British positions in Assam, India,230 and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima.231 In May 1944, British forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma,231 and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina.232 The second Japanese invasion of China attempted to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.233 By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a renewed attack against Changsha in the Hunan province.234 Allies close in (1944) American troops approachingOmaha Beach, during the Invasion of Normandy on D-Day, 6 June 1944 On 6 June 1944 (known as D-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,235 the Western Allies invaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France.236 These landings were successful, and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France. Paris was liberated by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces, both led by General Charles de Gaulle, on 25 August237 and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands ended with a failure.238 After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, unsuccessfully trying to cross the Rur river in a large offensive. In Italy the Allied advance also slowed down, when they ran into the last major German defensive line.239 On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (known as "Operation Bagration") that resulted in the almost complete destruction of the German Army Group Centre.240 Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The successful advance of Soviet troops prompted resistance forces in Poland to initiate several uprisings. Though, the largest of these in Warsaw, where German soldiers massacred 200,000 civilians, as well as a national Slovak Uprisingin the south did not receive Soviet support, and were put down by German forces.241 The Red Army's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed theconsiderable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side.242 German SS soldiers from theDirlewanger Brigade, tasked with suppressing partisan uprisings against Nazi occupation, August 1944 In September 1944, Soviet Red Army troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of the German Army Groups E and F in Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.243 By this point, the Communist-ledPartisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito, who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and were engaged in delaying efforts against the German forces further south. In northern Serbia, the Red Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a jointliberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault againstGerman-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945.244 In contrast with impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, the bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to the signing of Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions,245246 with a subsequentshift to the Allied side by Finland. By the start of July, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River247 while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In China, the Japanese were having greater successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August.248 Soon after, they further invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November249 and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by the middle of December.250 In the Pacific, American forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944 they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands, and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory during the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history.251 Axis collapse, Allied victory (1944–45) Yalta Conference held in February 1945, with Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin On 16 December 1944, Germany attempted its last desperate measure for success on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes to attempt to split the Western Allies, encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp to prompt a political settlement.252 By January, the offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.252 In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Soviets and Poles attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia.253 On 4 February, US, British, and Soviet leaders met for theYalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.254 In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania, while Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to theRhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling the German Army Group B,255 while the Soviets advanced to Vienna. In early April, the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany, while Soviet and Polish forces stormed Berlin in late April. The American and Soviet forces linked up on Elbe river on 25 April. On 30 April 1945, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of the Third Reich.256 Several changes in leadership occurred during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed byItalian partisans on 28 April.257 Two days later, Hitler committed suicide, and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz.258 The German Reichstag after its capture by the Allies, 3 June 1945 German forces surrendered in Italy on 29 April. Total and unconditional surrender was signed on 7 May, to be effective by the end of 8 May.259 German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May.260 In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and captured Manila in March following a battle which reduced the city to ruins. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war.261 On the night of 9–10 March, B-29 bombers of the US Army Air Forces struck Tokyo with incendiary bombs, which killed 100,000 people within a few hours. Over the next five months, American bombers firebombed 66 other Japanese cities, causing the destruction of untold numbers of buildings and the deaths of between 350,000–500,000 Japanese civilians.262 Japanese foreign affairs ministerMamoru Shigemitsu signs theJapanese Instrument of Surrender on board the USS Missouri, 2 September 1945 In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo, over-running the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May.263 Chinese forces started to counterattack in Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June.264 At the same time American bombers were destroying Japanese cities, American submarines cut off Japanese imports, drastically reducing Japan's ability to supply its overseas forces.265 On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany,266 and reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of all Japanese forces by Japan, specifically stating that "the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction".267 During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election, and Clement Attleereplaced Churchill as Prime Minister.268 The Allies called for unconditional Japanese surrender in the Potsdam declaration of 27 July, but the Japanese government was internally divided on whether to make peace and did not respond. In early August the United States dropped atomic bombson the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Like the Japanese cities previously bombed by American airmen, the US and its allies justified the atomic bombings as military necessity to avoid invading the Japanese home islands which would cost the lives of between 250,000–500,000 Allied troops and millions of Japanese troops and civilians.269 Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, invaded Japanese-held Manchuria, and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force.270271 The Red Army also captured Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands. On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered, with the surrender documents finally signed aboard the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war.272 Aftermath Main articles: Aftermath of World War II and Consequences of Nazism Ruins of Warsaw in January 1945, after the deliberate destruction of the city by the occupying German forces Post-war Soviet territorial expansion; resulted in Central European border changes, the creation of a Communist Bloc, and start of the Cold War The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany. The former became a neutral state, non-aligned with any political bloc. The latter was divided into western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the USSR, accordingly. A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society.273 Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia, Neumark and most of Pomeraniawere taken over by Poland, East Prussia was divided between Poland and the USSR, followed by the expulsion of the 9 million Germans from these provinces, as well as the expulsion of 3 million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia to Germany. By the 1950s, every fifth West German was a refugee from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon line, from which 2 million Poles were expelled;274 north-east Romania,275276 parts of eastern Finland,277 and the three Baltic states were also incorporated into the USSR.278279 In an effort to maintain peace,280 the Allies formed the United Nations, which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,281 and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, as a common standard for all member nations.282 The great powers that were the victors of the war—the United States, Soviet Union, China, Britain, and France—formed the permanent members of the UN's Security Council.7 The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and itssuccessor state, the Russian Federation, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over.283 Germany had been de facto divided, and two independent states, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic284 were created within the borders of Allied and Soviet occupation zones, accordingly. The rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence.285 Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, Poland,Hungary, East Germany,286 Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Albania287 became Soviet satellite states. Communist Yugoslaviaconducted a fully independent policy, causing tension with the USSR.288 Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-ledWarsaw Pact;289 the long period of political tensions and military competition between them, the Cold War, would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and proxy wars.290 In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administrated Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands.291 Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, was divided and occupied by the US in theSouth and the Soviet Union in the North between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War.292 In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949.293 In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and thecreation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab-Israeli conflict. While European colonial powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation.294295 The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The US emerged much richer than any other nation; it had ababy boom and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers and it dominated the world economy.296 The UK and US pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany in the years 1945–1948.297 Because of international trade interdependencies this led to European economic stagnation and delayed European recovery for several years.298299 Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the Marshall Plan(1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.300301 The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle.302 Italy also experienced an economic boom303 and the French economy rebounded.304 By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,305 and although it received a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country,306 continued relative economic decline for decades.307 The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era.308 Japan experiencedincredibly rapid economic growth, becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s.309 China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952.310 Impact Casualties and war crimes Main articles: World War II casualties, War crimes during World War II, War crimes in occupied Poland during World War II, German war crimes, War crimes of the Wehrmacht, Japanese war crimes, Allied war crimes during World War II and Soviet war crimes World War II deaths Estimates for the total casualties of the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded. Most suggest that some 75 million people died in the war, including about 20 million military personnel and 40 million civilians.311312313 Many of the civilians died because of deliberategenocide, massacres, mass-bombing, disease, and starvation. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war,314 including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. The largest portion of military dead were 5.7 million ethnic Russians, followed by 1.3 million ethnic Ukrainians.315 A quarter of the people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed.316 Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany.317 Of the total deaths in World War II, approximately 85 percent—mostly Soviet and Chinese—were on the Allied side and 15 percent on the Axis side. Many of these deaths were caused by war crimes committed by German and Japanese forces in occupied territories. An estimated 11318 to 17 million319 civilians died as a direct or indirect result of Nazi ideological policies, including the systematic genocide of around 6 million Jews during the Holocaust, along with a further 5 to 6 million ethnic Poles and other Slavs (including Ukrainians andBelarusians)320—Roma, homosexuals, and other ethnic and minority groups.319 Hundreds of thousands (varying estimates) of ethnic Serbs, along with gypsies and Jews, were murdered by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia,321 with retribution-related killings just after the war ended. Chinese civilians being buried alive by soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army, during the Nanking Massacre, December 1937 The best-known Japanese atrocity was the Nanking Massacre, in which several hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.322 Between 3 million to more than 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese (estimated at 7.5 million323), were killed by the Japanese occupation forces.324 Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported 2.7 million casualties occurred during the''Sankō Sakusen''. General Yasuji Okamura implemented the policy in Heipei and Shantung.325 Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons. The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during their invasion and occupation of China (see Unit 731)326327 and in early conflicts against the Soviets.328 Both the Germans and Japanese tested such weapons against civilians329 and, sometimes on prisoners of war.330 The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers,331 and the imprisonment or execution of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD,332 in the Baltic states, and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army. The mass-bombing of civilian areas, notably the cities of Warsaw, Rotterdam and London; including the aerial targeting of hospitals and fleeing refugees333 by the German Luftwaffe, along with the bombing of Tokyo, and German cities of Dresden,Hamburg and Cologne by the Western Allies may be considered as war crimes. The latter resulted in the destruction of more than 160 cities and the deaths of more than 600,000 German civilians.334 However, no positive or specific customaryinternational humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II.335 Concentration camps, slave labour, and genocide Further information: Genocide, The Holocaust, Nazi concentration camps, Extermination camp, Forced labour under German rule during World War II, Kidnapping of children by Nazi Germany and Nazi human experimentation Female SS camp guards remove bodies from lorries and carry them to a mass grave, inside the GermanBergen-Belsen concentration camp, 1945 The German Government led by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party was responsible for the Holocaust, the killing of approximately 6 million Jews, as well as 2.7 million ethnic Poles,336 and 4 million others who were deemed "unworthy of life" (including thedisabled and mentally ill, Soviet prisoners of war, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Romani) as part of a programme of deliberate extermination. About 12 million, most of whom were Eastern Europeans, were employed in the German war economy as forced labourers.337 In addition to Nazi concentration camps, the Soviet gulags (labour camps) led to the death of citizens of occupied countries such as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, as well as German prisoners of war (POWs) and even Soviet citizens who had been or were thought to be supporters of the Nazis.338 Sixty percent of Soviet POWs of the Germans died during the war.339Richard Overy gives the number of 5.7 million Soviet POWs. Of those, 57 percent died or were killed, a total of 3.6 million.340Soviet ex-POWs and repatriated civilians were treated with great suspicion as potential Nazi collaborators, and some of them were sent to the Gulag upon being checked by the NKVD.341 Prisoner identity photograph taken by the German SS of a fourteen-year-old Polish girl, sent as forced labour toAuschwitz, December 1942 Japanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent),342seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians.343 While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56.344 According to historian Zhifen Ju, at least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board, or Kōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million.345 The US Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between 4 and 10 million romusha(Japanese: "manual laborers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java.346 On 19 February 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, interning about 100,000 Japanese living on the West Coast. Canada had a similar program.347348 In addition, 14,000 German and Italian citizens who had been assessed as being security risks were also interned.349 In accordance with the Allied agreement made at the Yalta Conference millions of POWs and civilians were used as forced labour by the Soviet Union.350 In Hungary's case, Hungarians were forced to work for the Soviet Union until 1955.351 Occupation Main articles: German-occupied Europe, Lebensraum, Untermensch, Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II, Resistance during World War II andNazi plunder Blindfolded Polish citizens just before execution by German soldiers inPalmiry, 1940 In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichmarks (27.8 billion US Dollars) by the end of the war, this figure does not include the sizeable plunderof industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.352 Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on.353 In the East, the much hoped for bounties of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders.354 Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged excessive brutality against what it considered to be the "inferior people" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed bymass executions.355 Although resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the East356 or the West357 until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.358 Although Japanese forces were originally welcomed as liberators from European domination in some territories, their excessive brutality turned local public opinion against them within weeks.359 During Japan's initial conquest it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3) of oil (~5.5×105 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces, and by 1943 was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (~6.8×106 t), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate.359 Home fronts and production Main articles: Military production during World War II and Home front during World War II Allied to Axis GDP ratio In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis (Germany and Italy); if colonies are included, it then gives the Allies more than a 5:1 advantage in population and nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.360 In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan, but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included.360 Though the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into one of attrition.361 While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis is often attributed to the Allies having more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force,362 Allied strategic bombing,363 and Germany's late shift to a war economy364 contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and were not equipped to do so.365 To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers;366 Germany used about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,337 while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia.345346 Advances in technology and warfare Main article: Technology during World War II B-29 Superfortress strategic bombers on the Boeing assembly line inWichita, Kansas, 1944 Aircraft were used for reconnaissance, as fighters, bombers, and ground-support, and each role was advanced considerably. Innovation included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel);367 and ofstrategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war).368Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, such as the German 88 mm gun. The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and, though late introduction meant it had little impact, it led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide.369 Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare, most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines. Althoughaeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor, and the Coral Seaestablished the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship.370371372 In the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap.373 Carriers were also more economical than battleships because of the relatively low cost of aircraft374 and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured.375 Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War,376 were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics.377Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog, squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious. A V-2 rocket launched from a fixed site in Peenemünde, 1943 Land warfare changed from the static front lines of World War I to increased mobility and combined arms. The tank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon.378 In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I,379 and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications.380 This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.378 Many means of destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were utilised.380 Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,381 and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.382 Nuclear "gadget" being raised to the top of the detonation tower, atAlamogordo Bombing Range; Trinity nuclear test, July 1945 The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG34, and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings.382 The assault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard postwar infantry weapon for most armed forces.383384 Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks forcryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well known being the German Enigma machine.385 Development ofSIGINT (sig''nals ''int''elligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes386 and British Ultra, a pioneering method for decoding Enigma benefiting from information given to Britain by the Polish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war.387 Another aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception, which the Allies used to great effect, such as in operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard.386388 Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear weapons, operations research and the development of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under the English Channel.389 See also * Air warfare of World War II * Aftermath of World War II * Declarations of war during World War II * Home front during World War II * List of World War II battles * List of World War II conferences * List of World War II military operations * Women in World War II * World War II in popular culture ; Documentaries * ''The World Wars (miniseries) The World Wars is a three-part, six hour event miniseries by the History Channel that premiered on Monday, May 26, 2014, (Memorial Day) airing for three consecutive nights. An extended version of the series with never before seen footage was subsequently broadcast on H2 and in more than 160 countries on June 22, 2014 * Apocalypse: The Second World War (2009), a six-part French documentary by Daniel Costelle and Isabelle Clarke about World War II * Battlefield, a documentary television series initially issued in 1994–5, that explores many important World War II battles * BBC History of World War II, a television series, initially issued from 1989 to 2005. * The World at War (1974), a 26-part Thames Television series that covers most aspects of World War II from many points of view. It includes interviews with many key figures including Karl Dönitz, Albert Speer, and Anthony Eden. Notes # ^''' Various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended. Citations # '''^ Fitzgerald 2011, p. 4 # ^''' Hedgepeth & Saidel 2010, p. 16 # '''^ James A. Tyner (March 3, 2009). War, Violence, and Population: Making the Body Count. The Guilford Press; 1 edition. p. 49. ISBN 1-6062-3038-7. # ^''' Sommerville 2011, p. 5. # '''^ Barrett & Shyu 2001, p. 6. # ^''' Axelrod, Alan (2007) Encyclopedia of World War II, Volume 1. Infobase Publishing. pp. 659. # ^ ''a'' ''b'' The UN Security Council, retrieved 15 May2012 # '''^ Herman Van Rompuy, President of the European Council; José Manuel Durão Barroso, President of the European Commission (10 December 2012)."From War to Peace: A European Tale". Nobel Lecture by the European Union. Retrieved 4 January2014. # ^''' Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005) A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 6. # '''^ Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy. Rowman & Littlefield Publishing. pp. 7. # ^''' Förster & Gessler 2005, p. 64. # '''^ Ghuhl, Wernar (2007) Imperial Japan's World War Two Transaction Publishers pg 7, pg. 30 # ^''' Polmar, Norman; Thomas B. Allen (1991) World War II: America at war, 1941-1945 ISBN 978-0394585307 # '''^ Ben-Horin 1943, p. 169; Taylor 1979, p. 124; Yisreelit, Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). Asian and African Studies, p. 191. For 1941 see Taylor 1961, p. vii; Kellogg, William O (2003). American History the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. p. 236 ISBN 0-7641-1973-7. There is also the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same "European Civil War" or "Second Thirty Years War": Canfora 2006, p. 155; Prins 2002, p. 11. # ^''' Beevor 2012, p. 10. # '''^ Masaya 1990, p. 4. # ^''' "History of German-American Relations » 1989–1994 – Reunification » "Two-plus-Four-Treaty": Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, September 12, 1990". usa.usembassy.de. Retrieved 6 May 2012. # '''^ Ingram 2006, pp. 76–8 # ^''' Kantowicz 1999, p. 149 # '''^ Shaw 2000, p. 35. # ^''' Preston 1998, p. 104. # '''^ Myers & Peattie 1987, p. 458. # ^''' Smith & Steadman 2004, p. 28. # '''^ Coogan 1993: "Although some Chinese troops in the Northeast managed to retreat south, others were trapped by the advancing Japanese Army and were faced with the choice of resistance in defiance of orders, or surrender. A few commanders submitted, receiving high office in the puppet government, but others took up arms against the invader. The forces they commanded were the first of the volunteer armies." # ^''' Brody 1999, p. 4. # '''^ Dawood & Mitra 2012. # ^''' Zalampas 1989, p. 62. # '''^ Mandelbaum 1988, p. 96; Record 2005, p. 50. # ^''' Schmitz 2000, p. 124. # '''^ Adamthwaite 1992, p. 52. # ^''' Busky 2002, p. 10. # '''^ Andrea L. Stanton, Edward Ramsamy, Peter J. Seybolt. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. p. 308. Retrieved2014-04-06. # ^''' Barker 1971, pp. 131–2. # '''^ Kitson 2001, p. 231. # ^''' Beevor 2006, pp. 258–60. Tony Judt said that the "communist strategy in Spain turns out to have been a dry run for the seizure of power in Eastern Europe after 1945." See Judt & Snyder 2012, p. 190. # '''^ Budiansky 2004, pp. 209–11. # ^''' Payne 2008. # '''^ Eastman 1986, pp. 547–51. # ^''' Levene, Mark and Roberts, Penny. The Massacre in History. 1999, page 223-4 # '''^ Totten, Samuel. Dictionary of Genocide. 2008, 298–9. # ^''' Hsu & Chang 1971, pp. 221–230. # '''^ Eastman 1986, p. 566. # ^''' Taylor 2009, pp. 150–2. # '''^ Sella 1983, pp. 651–87. # ^''' Goldman, Stuart D. (28 August 2012). "The Forgotten Soviet-Japanese War of 1939". The Diplomat. Retrieved 26 June 2015. # '''^ Timothy Neeno. "Nomonhan: The Second Russo-Japanese War". MilitaryHistoryOnline.com. Retrieved 26 June 2015. # ^''' Collier & Pedley 2000, p. 144. # '''^ Kershaw 2001, pp. 121–2. # ^''' Kershaw 2001, p. 157. # '''^ Davies 2008, pp. 143–4. # ^''' Lowe & Marzari 2002, p. 330. # '''^ Dear & Foot 2001, p. 234. # ^''' Shore 2003, p. 108. # '''^ Dear & Foot 2001, p. 608. # ^''' Minutes of the conference between the Fuehrer and the Italian Minister for Foreign Affairs, Count Ciano, in the presence of the Reich Foreign Minister of Obersalzberg on 12 August 1939 in Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression Volume IV Document No. 1871-PS # '''^ "The German Campaign In Poland (1939)". Retrieved 29 October 2014. # ^ a'' ''b "Major international events of 1939, with explanation". ibiblio.org. Retrieved 15 May 2013. # ^''' Evans 2008, pp. 1–2. # '''^ Jackson 2006, p. 58. # ^''' Weinberg 2005, pp. 64–5. # '''^ Keegan 1997, p. 35. Cienciala 2010, p. 128, observes that, while it is true that Poland was far away, making it difficult for the French and British to provide support, "few Western historians of World War II ... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland, but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshafen. The French, who committed to attack Germany in the west, had no intention of doing so." # ^''' Beevor 2012, p. 32; Dear & Foot 2001, pp. 248–9;Roskill 1954, p. 64. # '''^ Zaloga 2002, pp. 80, 83. # ^''' Hempel 2005, p. 24. # '''^ Zaloga 2002, pp. 88–9. # ^''' Budiansky 2001, pp. 120–1. # '''^ Nuremberg Documents C-62/GB86, a directive from Hitler in October 1939 which concludes: "The attack France is to be launched this Autumn if conditions are at all possible." # ^''' Liddell Hart 1977, pp. 39–40 # '''^ Hitler: a Study in Tyranny, A Bullock, Penguin, 1983, p563-4, 566, 568–9, 574–5 # ^''' Blitzkrieg: From the Rise of Hitler to the Fall of Dunkirk, L Deighton, Jonathan Cape, 1993, p186-7. Deighton states that "the offensive was postponed twenty-nine times before it finally took place". # '''^ Smith et al. 2002, p. 24 # ^ a'' ''b Bilinsky 1999, p. 9. # ^ a'' ''b Murray & Millett 2001, pp. 55–6. # ^''' Spring 1986. # '''^ Hanhimäki 1997, p. 12. # ^''' Ferguson 2006, pp. 367, 376, 379, 417 # '''^ Snyder 2010, p. 118ff. # ^''' Koch 1983. # '''^ Roberts 2006, p. 56. # ^''' Roberts 2006, p. 59. # '''^ Murray & Millett 2001, pp. 57–63. # ^''' Commager 2004, p. 9. # '''^ Reynolds 2006, p. 76. # ^''' Evans 2008, pp. 122–3. # '''^ Dear & Foot 2001, p. 436. The Americans later relieved the British, with marines arriving in Reykjavik on 7 July 1941 (Schofield 1981, p. 122). # ^''' Shirer 1990, pp. 721–3. # '''^ Keegan 1997, pp. 59–60. # ^''' Regan 2004, p. 152. # '''^ Liddell Hart 1977, p. 48 # ^''' Keegan 1997, pp. 66–7. # '''^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999, p. 207. # ^''' Umbreit 1991, p. 311. # '''^ Brown 2004, p. xxx. # ^ a'' ''b c'' "Major international events of 1940, with explanation". ibiblio.org. Retrieved 15 May 2013. # ^ ''a b'' Kelly, Rees & Shuter 1998, p. 38. # '''^ The Battle of Britain: The Last Phase THE DEFENSE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM 1957 # ^''' Goldstein 2004, p. 35. Aircraft played a highly important role in defeating the German U-boats (Schofield 1981, p. 122). # '''^ Steury 1987, p. 209; Zetterling & Tamelander 2009, p. 282. # ^''' Dear & Foot 2001, pp. 108–9. # '''^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999, pp. 328–30. # ^''' Maingot 1994, p. 52. # '''^ Cantril 1940, p. 390. # ^''' Coordination With Britain Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Operations # '''^ Bilhartz & Elliott 2007, p. 179. # ^''' Dear & Foot 2001, p. 877. # '''^ Dear & Foot 2001, pp. 745–6. # ^''' Clogg 2002, p. 118. # '''^ Evans 2008, pp. 146, 152; US Army 1986, pp. 4–6 # ^''' Jowett 2001, pp. 9–10. # '''^ Jackson 2006, p. 106. # ^''' Laurier 2001, pp. 7–8. # '''^ Murray & Millett 2001, pp. 263–7. # ^''' Macksey 1997, pp. 61–3. # '''^ Weinberg 2005, p. 229. # ^''' Watson 2003, p. 80. # '''^ Jackson 2006, p. 154. # ^''' Garver 1988, p. 114. # '''^ Weinberg 2005, p. 195 # ^''' Murray 1983, p. 69 # ^ ''a b'' Klooz, Marle; Wiley, Evelyn (1944), "1941",Events leading up to World War II: Chronological history of certain major international events leading up to and during World War II with the ostensible reasons advanced for their occurrence — 1931–1944, 78th Congress, 2d Session, Humphrey, Richard A, Washington: United States Government Printing Office, House Document No. 541 # '''^ Sella 1978. # ^''' Kershaw 2007, pp. 66–9. # '''^ Steinberg 1995. # ^''' Hauner 1978. # '''^ Roberts 1995. # ^''' Wilt 1981. # '''^ Erickson 2003, pp. 114–37. # ^''' Glantz 2001, p. 9. # '''^ Farrell 1993. # ^''' Keeble 1990, p. 29. # '''^ Bueno de Mesquita et al. 2003, p. 425 # ^''' Beevor 2012, p. 220. # '''^ Kleinfeld 1983. # ^''' Jukes 2001, p. 113. # '''^ Glantz 2001, p. 26: "By 1 November Wehrmacht had lost fully 20% of its committed strength (686,000 men), up to 2/3 of its ½-million motor vehicles, and 65 percent of its tanks. The German Army High Command (OKH) rated its 136 divisions as equivalent to 83 full-strength divisions." # ^''' Reinhardt 1992, p. 227. # '''^ Milward 1964. # ^''' Rotundo 1986. # '''^ Glantz 2001, p. 26. # ^''' Garthoff 1969. # '''^ Beevor 1998, pp. 41–2. Evans 2008, pp. 213–4, notes that "Zhukov had pushed the Germans back to the point from which they had launched Operation Typhoon two months before. ... Only Stalin's decision to attack all along the front instead of pushing home the advantage by concentrating his forces in an all-out assault against the retreating Germany Army Group Centre prevented the disaster from being even worse." # ^''' Jowett & Andrew 2002, p. 14. # '''^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999, p. 289 # ^''' Morison 2002, p. 60. # '''^ Joes 2004, p. 224. # ^''' Fairbank & Goldman 2006, p. 320. # '''^ Hsu & Chang 1971, p. 30. # ^''' Hsu & Chang 1971, p. 33. # '''^ Japanese Policy and Strategy, 1931 – July 1941Strategy and Command: The First Two Years # ^''' Anderson 1975, p. 201. # '''^ Evans & Peattie 2012, p. 456. # ^ '''''a b'' The Decision for War Strategy and Command: The First Two Years # ^ ''a b'' The Showdown With Japan August–December 1941 Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1941–1942 # '''^ THE UNITED STATES REPLIES Investigation of the Pearl Harbor attack # ^''' Painter 2012, p. 26: "The United States cut off oil exports to Japan in the summer of 1941, forcing Japanese leaders to choose between going to war to seize the oil fields of the Netherlands East Indies or giving in to U.S. pressure." Wood 2007, p. 9, listing various military and diplomatic developments, observes that "the threat to Japan was not purely economic." # '''^ Lightbody 2004, p. 125. # ^''' Weinberg 2005, p. 310. Dower 1986, p. 5, calls attention to the fact that "the Allied struggle against Japan exposed the racist underpinnings of the European and American colonial structure. Japan did not invade independent countries in southern Asia. It invaded colonial outposts which the Westerners had dominated for generations, taking absolutely for granted their racial and cultural superiority over their Asian subjects." Dower goes on to note that, before the horrors of Japanese occupation made themselves felt, many Asians responded favourably to the victories of the Imperial Japanese forces. # '''^ Wood 2007, pp. 11–2. # ^ '''''a b'' Wohlstetter 1962, pp. 341–3. # '''^ Dunn 1998, p. 157. According to May 1955, p. 155, Churchill stated: "Russian declaration of war on Japan would be greatly to our advantage, provided, but only provided, that Russians are confident that will not impair their Western Front". # ^''' Mingst & Karns 2007, p. 22. # '''^ The First Full Dress Debate over Strategic Deployment December 1941 – January 1942Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1941–1942 # ^''' The Elimination of the Alternatives July–August 1942 Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1941–1942 # '''^ Casablanca—Beginning of an Era: January 1943 Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1943–1944 # ^''' The TRIDENT Conference—New Patterns: May 1943 Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1943–1944 # '''^ Beevor 2012, pp. 247–267, 345. # ^''' Lewis 1953, p. 529 (Table 11). # '''^ Slim 1956, pp. 71–74. # ^''' Grove 1995, p. 362. # '''^ Ch'i 1992, p. 158. # ^''' Perez 1998, p. 145. # '''^ Maddox 1992, pp. 111–2. # ^''' Salecker 2001, p. 186. # '''^ Ropp 2000, p. 368. # ^''' Weinberg 2005, p. 339. # '''^ Gilbert, Adrian (2003). The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Earliest Times to the Present Day. Globe Pequot. p. 259. ISBN 1-59228-027-7. # ^''' Swain 2001, p. 197. # '''^ Hane 2001, p. 340. # ^''' Marston 2005, p. 111. # '''^ Brayley 2002, p. 9. # ^''' Glantz 2001, p. 31. # '''^ Read 2004, p. 764. # ^''' Davies 2008, p. 100. # '''^ Beevor 1998, pp. 239–65. # ^''' Black 2003, p. 119. # '''^ Beevor 1998, pp. 383–91. # ^''' Erickson 2001, p. 142. # '''^ Milner 1990, p. 52. # ^''' Beevor 2012, pp. 224–8. # '''^ Molinari 2007, p. 91. # ^''' Mitcham 2007, p. 31. # '''^ Beevor 2012, pp. 380–1. # ^''' Rich 1992, p. 178. # '''^ Gordon 2004, p. 129. # ^''' Neillands 2005, p. ??. # '''^ Keegan 1997, p. 277. # ^''' Smith 2002. # '''^ Thomas & Andrew 1998, p. 8. # ^ '''''a b'' Ross 1997, p. 38. # '''^ Bonner & Bonner 2001, p. 24. # ^''' Collier 2003, p. 11. # '''^ " The Civilians United States Strategic Bombing Survey Summary Report (European War) # ^''' Thompson & Randall 2008, p. 164. # '''^ Kennedy 2001, p. 610. # ^''' Rottman 2002, p. 228. # '''^ Glantz 1986; Glantz 1989, pp. 149–59. # ^''' Kershaw 2001, p. 592. # '''^ O'Reilly 2001, p. 32. # ^''' Bellamy 2007, p. 595. # '''^ O'Reilly 2001, p. 35. # ^''' Healy 1992, p. 90. # '''^ Glantz 2001, pp. 50–55. # ^''' Kolko 1990, p. 45: "On September 3, as Allied forces landed in Italy, Badoglio agreed to a secret armistice in the hope the Allies would land a major force north of Rome and save his government and the king. When he learned such a rescue would not occur he desperately attempted to call off his bargain with Eisenhower, who cut short the matter on September 8 by announcing news of its existence. The next day the hero of Abyssinia, his king, and a small retinue deserted Rome for the southeast tip of Italy, leaving most of Italy to the Nazis." # '''^ Mazower 2008, p. 362. # ^''' Hart, Hart & Hughes 2000, p. 151. # '''^ Blinkhorn 2006, p. 52. # ^''' Read & Fisher 2002, p. 129. # '''^ Padfield 1998, pp. 335–6. # ^''' Kolko 1990, pp. 211, 235, 267–8. # '''^ Iriye 1981, p. 154. # ^''' Polley 2000, p. 148. # '''^ Beevor 2012, pp. 268–74. # ^''' Ch'i 1992, p. 161. # '''^ Hsu & Chang 1971, pp. 412–416, Map 38 # ^''' Weinberg 2005, pp. 660–1. # '''^ Glantz 2002, pp. 327–66. # ^''' Glantz 2002, pp. 367–414. # '''^ Chubarov 2001, p. 122. # ^''' Holland 2008, pp. 169–84; Beevor 2012, pp. 568–73. The weeks after the fall of Rome saw a dramatic upswing in German atrocities in Italy (Mazower 2008, pp. 500–2). The period featured massacres with victims in the hundreds at Civitella (de Grazia & Paggi 1991; Belco 2010), Fosse Ardeatine (Portelli 2003), and Sant'Anna di Stazzema (Gordon 2012, pp. 10–1), and is capped with the Marzabotto massacre. # '''^ Lightbody 2004, p. 224. # ^ '''''a b'' Zeiler 2004, p. 60. # '''^ Beevor 2012, pp. 555–60. # ^''' Ch'i 1992, p. 163. # '''^ Coble 2003, p. 85. # ^''' Rees 2008, pp. 406–7: "Stalin always believed that Britain and America were delaying the second front so that the Soviet Union would bear the brunt of the war". # '''^ Weinberg 2005, p. 695. # ^''' Badsey 1990, p. 91. # '''^ Dear & Foot 2001, p. 562. # ^''' Forrest, Evans & Gibbons 2012, p. 191 # '''^ Zaloga 1996, p. 7: "It was the most calamitous defeat of all the German armed forces in World War II". # ^''' Berend 1996, p. 8. # '''^ "Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation". 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